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Cardiology

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the medical speciality. For the album, see <a href="Cardiology_(album)" title="Cardiology (album)">Cardiology (album)</a>. For the medical journal, see <a href="Cardiology_(journal)" title="Cardiology (journal)">Cardiology (journal)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="padding-bottom:0.25em;">Cardiology</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding-top:0.25em;padding-bottom:0.4em;">Blood flow diagram of the human heart. Blue components indicate de-oxygenated blood pathways and red components indicate oxygenated blood pathways.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">System</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">Cardiovascular</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div><ul><li>Interventional cardiology</li><li>Clinical cardiac electrophysiology</li><li>Heart failure and transplant cardiology</li><li>Nuclear cardiology</li><li>Adult congenital heart disease</li><li>Pediatric cardiology</li><li>Echocardiography</li><li>Cardiovascular imaging</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Significant diseases</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div><ul><li><a href="Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Heart (or cardiovascular) disease</a> and <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a></li><li><a href="Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">Atherosclerosis</a> and <a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a></li><li><a href="Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">Atrial fibrillation</a> and other <a href="Arrhythmia" title="Arrhythmia">arrhythmias</a></li><li><a href="Cardiomyopathy" title="Cardiomyopathy">Cardiomyopathy</a></li><li><a href="Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> (high blood pressure)</li><li><a href="Congenital_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital heart disease">Congenital heart disease</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Significant tests</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Cardiology_diagnostic_tests_and_procedures" title="Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures">Blood tests, electrophysiology study</a>, <a href="Cardiac_imaging" title="Cardiac imaging">cardiac imaging</a>, <a href="ECG" class="mw-redirect" title="ECG">ECG</a>, <a href="Echocardiogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Echocardiogram">echocardiograms</a>, <a href="Cardiac_stress_test" title="Cardiac stress test">stress test</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Specialist</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Cardiologist</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Glossary</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Glossary of medicine</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

<table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Cardiologist</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Names</th><td class="infobox-data">

<ul><li>Physician</li>

<li>Surgeon</li></ul>

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Occupation type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">Specialty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a>, <a href="Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data">

<ul><li><a href="Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a> (M.D.)</li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a> (D.O.)</li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medicine%2C_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a> (M.B.B.S.)</li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medicine%2C_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a> (MBChB)</li></ul>

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a>, <a href="Clinic" title="Clinic">clinics</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

Cardiology (from <a href="Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> καρδίᾱ (kardiā) 'heart' and -λογία (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia" class="extiw external" title="wikt:-logia">-logia</a>) 'study') is the study of the heart. Cardiology is a branch of <a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> that deals with disorders of the <a href="Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> and the <a href="Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">cardiovascular system</a>, and it is a sub-specialty of <a href="Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">internal medicine</a>. The field includes <a href="Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">medical diagnosis</a> and treatment of <a href="Congenital_heart_defect" title="Congenital heart defect">congenital heart defects</a>, <a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a>, <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>, <a href="Valvular_heart_disease" title="Valvular heart disease">valvular heart disease</a>, and <a href="Clinical_cardiac_electrophysiology" title="Clinical cardiac electrophysiology">electrophysiology</a>. <a href="Physician" title="Physician">Physicians</a> who specialize in this field of medicine are called cardiologists. Pediatric cardiologists are <a href="Pediatrician" class="mw-redirect" title="Pediatrician">pediatricians</a> who specialize in cardiology. Physicians who specialize in cardiac surgery are called <a href="Cardiothoracic_surgeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiothoracic surgeon">cardiothoracic surgeons</a> or cardiac surgeons, a specialty of <a href="General_surgery" title="General surgery">general surgery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specializations">Specializations</h2></div>

All cardiologists in the branch of medicine study the disorders of the heart, but the study of adult and child heart disorders each require different training pathways. Therefore, an adult cardiologist (often simply called "cardiologist") is inadequately trained to take care of children, and pediatric cardiologists are not trained to treat adult heart disease. Surgical aspects outside of cardiac rhythm device implant are not included in cardiology and are in the domain of <a href="Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">cardiothoracic surgery</a>. For example, <a href="Coronary_artery_bypass_surgery" title="Coronary artery bypass surgery">coronary artery bypass surgery</a> (CABG), <a href="Cardiopulmonary_bypass" title="Cardiopulmonary bypass">cardiopulmonary bypass</a> and <a href="Valve_replacement" title="Valve replacement">valve replacement</a> are surgical procedures performed by surgeons, not cardiologists. Typically a cardiologist would first identify who is in need of cardiac surgery and refer them to a cardiac surgeon for the procedure. However, some invasive procedures such as <a href="Cardiac_catheterization" title="Cardiac catheterization">cardiac catheterization</a> and <a href="Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial cardiac pacemaker">pacemaker implantation</a> are performed by cardiologists.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adult_cardiology">Adult cardiology</h3></div>

Cardiology is a specialty of <a href="Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">internal medicine</a>.

To become a cardiologist in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, a three-year residency in internal medicine is followed by a three-year fellowship in cardiology. It is possible to specialize further in a sub-specialty. Recognized sub-specialties in the U.S. by the <a href="Accreditation_Council_for_Graduate_Medical_Education" title="Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education">Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education</a> are <a href="Clinical_cardiac_electrophysiology" title="Clinical cardiac electrophysiology">clinical cardiac electrophysiology</a>, <a href="Interventional_cardiology" title="Interventional cardiology">interventional cardiology</a>, adult congenital heart disease, and advanced heart failure and transplant cardiology. Cardiologists may further become certified in echocardiography by the National Board of Echocardiography,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> in nuclear cardiology by the Certification Board of Nuclear Cardiology, in cardiovascular computed tomography by the Certification Board of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography in cardiovascular MRI by the Certification Board of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Recognized subspecialties in the U.S. by the <a href="American_Osteopathic_Association_Bureau_of_Osteopathic_Specialists" title="American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists">American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists</a> include <a href="Clinical_cardiac_electrophysiology" title="Clinical cardiac electrophysiology">clinical cardiac electrophysiology</a> and <a href="Interventional_cardiology" title="Interventional cardiology">interventional cardiology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

In India, a three-year residency in General Medicine or Pediatrics after <a href="M.B.B.S." class="mw-redirect" title="M.B.B.S.">M.B.B.S.</a> and then three years of residency in cardiology are needed to be a D.M. (holder of a Doctorate of Medicine [D.M.])/<a href="Diplomate_of_National_Board" title="Diplomate of National Board">Diplomate of National Board</a> (DNB) in Cardiology.

Per <a href="Doximity" title="Doximity">Doximity</a>, adult cardiologists earn an average of $436,849 per year in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-r1-5">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cardiac_electrophysiology">Cardiac electrophysiology</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cardiac_electrophysiology" title="Cardiac electrophysiology">Cardiac electrophysiology</a></div>

Cardiac electrophysiology is the science of elucidating, diagnosing, and treating the electrical activities of the heart. The term is usually used to describe studies of such phenomena by invasive (intracardiac) <a href="Cardiac_catheterization" title="Cardiac catheterization">catheter</a> recording of spontaneous activity as well as of cardiac responses to <a href="Programmed_electrical_stimulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Programmed electrical stimulation">programmed electrical stimulation</a> (PES). These studies are performed to assess complex <a href="Arrhythmia" title="Arrhythmia">arrhythmias</a>, elucidate symptoms, evaluate abnormal <a href="Electrocardiograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrocardiograms">electrocardiograms</a>, assess risk of developing arrhythmias in the future, and design treatment. These procedures increasingly include therapeutic methods (typically <a href="Radiofrequency_ablation" title="Radiofrequency ablation">radiofrequency ablation</a>, or <a href="Cryoablation" title="Cryoablation">cryoablation</a>) in addition to diagnostic and prognostic procedures.

Other therapeutic modalities employed in this field include <a href="Antiarrhythmic_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiarrhythmic drug">antiarrhythmic drug</a> therapy and implantation of <a href="Artificial_pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pacemaker">pacemakers</a> and automatic <a href="Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillators" class="mw-redirect" title="Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators">implantable cardioverter-defibrillators</a> (AICD).<a href="#cite_note-Fauci-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>

The cardiac <a href="Electrophysiology_study" title="Electrophysiology study">electrophysiology study</a> typically measures the response of the injured or cardiomyopathic myocardium to PES on specific pharmacological regimens in order to assess the likelihood that the regimen will successfully prevent potentially fatal sustained <a href="Ventricular_tachycardia" title="Ventricular tachycardia">ventricular tachycardia</a> (VT) or <a href="Ventricular_fibrillation" title="Ventricular fibrillation">ventricular fibrillation</a> (VF) in the future. Sometimes a series of electrophysiology-study drug trials must be conducted to enable the cardiologist to select the one regimen for long-term treatment that best prevents or slows the development of VT or VF following PES. Such studies may also be conducted in the presence of a newly implanted or newly replaced cardiac pacemaker or AICD.<a href="#cite_note-Fauci-6">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clinical_cardiac_electrophysiology">Clinical cardiac electrophysiology</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Clinical_cardiac_electrophysiology" title="Clinical cardiac electrophysiology">Clinical cardiac electrophysiology</a></div>

Clinical cardiac electrophysiology is a branch of the medical specialty of cardiology and is concerned with the study and treatment of rhythm disorders of the heart. Cardiologists with expertise in this area are usually referred to as electrophysiologists. Electrophysiologists are trained in the mechanism, function, and performance of the electrical activities of the heart. Electrophysiologists work closely with other cardiologists and cardiac surgeons to assist or guide therapy for heart rhythm disturbances (arrhythmias). They are trained to perform interventional and surgical procedures to treat cardiac arrhythmia.<a href="#cite_note-pmid35695795-8">[8]</a>

The training required to become an electrophysiologist is long and requires eight years after medical school (within the U.S.). Three years of internal medicine residency, three years of cardiology fellowship, and two years of clinical cardiac electrophysiology.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30566044-9">[9]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cardiogeriatrics">Cardiogeriatrics</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cardiogeriatrics" title="Cardiogeriatrics">Cardiogeriatrics</a></div>

Cardiogeriatrics, or geriatric cardiology, is the branch of cardiology and geriatric medicine that deals with the cardiovascular disorders in elderly people.

Cardiac disorders such as <a href="Coronary_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary heart disease">coronary heart disease</a>, including <a href="Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">myocardial infarction</a>, <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>, <a href="Cardiomyopathy" title="Cardiomyopathy">cardiomyopathy</a>, and arrhythmias such as <a href="Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a>, are common and are a major cause of mortality in elderly people.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Vascular disorders such as <a href="Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> and <a href="Peripheral_arterial_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral arterial disease">peripheral arterial disease</a> cause significant morbidity and mortality in aged people.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imaging">Imaging</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Echocardiography" title="Echocardiography">Echocardiography</a>, <a href="Cardiac_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging">Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</a>, and <a href="Computed_tomography_of_the_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography of the heart">Computed tomography of the heart</a></div>

Cardiac imaging includes echocardiography (echo), cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), and computed tomography of the heart.

Those who specialize in cardiac imaging may undergo more training in all imaging modes or focus on a single imaging modality.

Echocardiography (or "echo") uses standard two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and <a href="Doppler_ultrasound" class="mw-redirect" title="Doppler ultrasound">Doppler ultrasound</a> to create images of the heart. It is used to evaluate and quantify cardiac size and function, valvular function, and can assist with diagnosis and treatment of conditions including heart failure, heart attack, valvular heart disease, congenital heart defects, pericardial disease, and aortic disease.

Those who specialize in echo may spend a significant amount of their clinical time reading echos and performing transesophageal echo, in particular using the latter during procedures such as insertion of a left atrial appendage occlusion device. Transesophageal echo provides higher spatial resolution than trans thoracic echocardiography and because the probe is located in the esophagus, it is not limited by attenuation due to anterior chest structures such as the ribs, chest wall, breasts, lungs that can hinder the quality of trans thoracic echocardiography. It is generally indicated for a variety of indications including: when the standard transthoracic echocardiogram is non diagnostic, for detailed evaluation of abnormalities that are typically in the far field, such as the aorta, left atrial appendage, evaluation of native or prosthetic heart valves, evaluation of cardiac masses, evaluation of endocarditis, valvular abscesses, or for the evaluation of cardiac source of embolus. It is frequently used in the setting of atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter to facilitate the clinical decision with regard to anticoagulation, cardioversion and/or radio frequency ablation.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

Cardiac MRI utilizes special protocols to image heart structure and function with specific sequences for certain diseases such as <a href="Hemochromatosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemochromatosis">hemochromatosis</a> and <a href="Amyloidosis" title="Amyloidosis">amyloidosis</a>.

Cardiac CT utilizes special protocols to image heart structure and function with particular emphasis on coronary arteries.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interventional_cardiology">Interventional cardiology</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Interventional_cardiology" title="Interventional cardiology">Interventional cardiology</a></div>

Interventional cardiology is a branch of cardiology that deals specifically with the <a href="Catheter" title="Catheter">catheter</a> based treatment of structural heart diseases.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> A large number of procedures can be performed on the heart by catheterization, including angiogram, angioplasty, atherectomy, and stent implantation. These procedures all involve insertion of a sheath into the <a href="Femoral_artery" title="Femoral artery">femoral artery</a> or radial artery (but, in practice, any large peripheral artery or vein) and <a href="Cannula" title="Cannula">cannulating</a> the heart under X-ray visualization (most commonly <a href="Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">fluoroscopy</a>). This cannulation allows indirect access to the heart, bypassing the trauma caused by surgical opening of the chest.

The main advantages of using the interventional cardiology or radiology approach are the avoidance of the scars and pain, and long post-operative recovery. Additionally, interventional cardiology procedure of primary <a href="Angioplasty" title="Angioplasty">angioplasty</a> is now the gold standard of care for an acute myocardial infarction. This procedure can also be done proactively, when areas of the vascular system become occluded from <a href="Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>. The Cardiologist will thread this sheath through the vascular system to access the heart. This sheath has a balloon and a tiny wire mesh tube wrapped around it, and if the cardiologist finds a blockage or <a href="Stenosis" title="Stenosis">stenosis</a>, they can inflate the balloon at the occlusion site in the vascular system to flatten or compress the plaque against the vascular wall. Once that is complete a <a href="Stent" title="Stent">stent</a> is placed as a type of scaffold to hold the vasculature open permanently.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cardiomyopathy/heart_failure">Cardiomyopathy/heart failure</h4></div>

A relatively newer specialization of cardiology is in the field of heart failure and heart transplant. Cardiomyopathy is a disease of the heart muscle that make it larger or stiffer, sometimes making the heart worse at pumping blood.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Specialization of general cardiology to just that of the <a href="Cardiomyopathy" title="Cardiomyopathy">cardiomyopathies</a> leads to also specializing in <a href="Heart_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart transplant">heart transplant</a> and <a href="Pulmonary_hypertension" title="Pulmonary hypertension">pulmonary hypertension</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cardiooncology">Cardiooncology</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cardiooncology" title="Cardiooncology">Cardiooncology</a></div>

A recent specialization of cardiology is that of cardiooncology.

This area specializes in the cardiac management in those with cancer and in particular those with plans for <a href="Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a> or those who have experienced cardiac complications of chemotherapy.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preventive_cardiology_and_cardiac_rehabilitation">Preventive cardiology and cardiac rehabilitation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Cardiac_rehabilitation" title="Cardiac rehabilitation">Cardiac rehabilitation</a></div>

In recent times, the focus is gradually shifting to preventive cardiology due to increased <a href="Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a> burden at an early age. According to the WHO, 37% of all premature deaths are due to cardiovascular diseases and out of this, 82% are in low and middle income countries.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Clinical cardiology is the sub specialty of cardiology which looks after preventive cardiology and cardiac rehabilitation. Preventive cardiology also deals with routine preventive checkup though noninvasive tests, specifically electrocardiography, <a href="Fasegraphy" title="Fasegraphy">fasegraphy</a>, stress tests, <a href="Lipid_profile" title="Lipid profile">lipid profile</a> and general physical examination to detect any cardiovascular diseases at an early age, while cardiac rehabilitation is the upcoming branch of cardiology which helps a person regain their overall strength and live a normal life after a cardiovascular event. A subspecialty of preventive cardiology is <a href="Sports_cardiology" title="Sports cardiology">sports cardiology</a>. Because heart disease is the leading cause of death in the world including United States (cdc.gov), national health campaigns and randomized control research has developed to improve heart health.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pediatric_cardiology">Pediatric cardiology</h3></div>

<a href="Helen_B._Taussig" title="Helen B. Taussig">Helen B. Taussig</a> is known as the founder of pediatric cardiology. She became famous through her work with <a href="Tetralogy_of_Fallot" title="Tetralogy of Fallot">Tetralogy</a> congenital heart defect in which <a href="Oxygenated_blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygenated blood">oxygenated and deoxygenated blood</a> enters the circulatory system resulting from a <a href="Ventricular_septal_defect" title="Ventricular septal defect">ventricular septal defect</a> (VSD) right beneath the aorta. This condition causes newborns to have a bluish-tint, <a href="Cyanosis" title="Cyanosis">cyanosis</a>, and have a deficiency of oxygen to their tissues, <a href="Hypoxemia" title="Hypoxemia">hypoxemia</a>. She worked with <a href="Alfred_Blalock" title="Alfred Blalock">Alfred Blalock</a> and <a href="Vivien_Thomas" title="Vivien Thomas">Vivien Thomas</a> at the <a href="Johns_Hopkins_Hospital" title="Johns Hopkins Hospital">Johns Hopkins Hospital</a> where they experimented with dogs to look at how they would attempt to surgically cure these "blue babies". They eventually figured out how to do just that by the <a href="Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">anastomosis</a> of the systemic artery to the pulmonary artery and called this the <a href="Blalock%E2%80%93Taussig_shunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Blalock–Taussig shunt">Blalock-Taussig Shunt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

<a href="Tetralogy_of_Fallot" title="Tetralogy of Fallot">Tetralogy of Fallot</a>, <a href="Pulmonary_atresia" title="Pulmonary atresia">pulmonary atresia</a>, <a href="Double_outlet_right_ventricle" title="Double outlet right ventricle">double outlet right ventricle</a>, <a href="Transposition_of_the_Great_Arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Transposition of the Great Arteries">transposition of the great arteries</a>, <a href="Persistent_truncus_arteriosus" title="Persistent truncus arteriosus">persistent truncus arteriosus</a>, and <a href="Ebstein's_anomaly" title="Ebstein's anomaly">Ebstein's anomaly</a> are various congenital cyanotic heart diseases, in which the <a href="Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> of the newborn is not oxygenated efficiently, due to the heart defect.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adult_congenital_heart_disease">Adult congenital heart disease</h3></div>

As more children with congenital heart disease are surviving into adulthood, a hybrid of adult and pediatric cardiology has emerged called adult congenital heart disease (ACHD).

This field can be entered as either adult or pediatric cardiology.

ACHD specializes in congenital diseases in the setting of adult diseases (e.g., coronary artery disease, COPD, diabetes) that is, otherwise, atypical for adult or pediatric cardiology.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_heart">The heart</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></div>

As the center focus of cardiology, the heart has numerous anatomical features (e.g., <a href="Atrium_(heart)" title="Atrium (heart)">atria</a>, <a href="Ventricle_(heart)" title="Ventricle (heart)">ventricles</a>, <a href="Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">heart valves</a>) and numerous physiological features (e.g., <a href="Systole_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Systole (medicine)">systole</a>, <a href="Heart_sounds" title="Heart sounds">heart sounds</a>, <a href="Afterload" title="Afterload">afterload</a>) that have been encyclopedically documented for many centuries. The heart is located in the middle of the abdomen with its tip slightly towards the left side of the abdomen.

Disorders of the heart lead to <a href="Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a> and cardiovascular disease and can lead to a significant number of deaths: cardiovascular disease is the leading <a href="Cause_of_death" title="Cause of death">cause of death</a> in the U.S. and caused 24.95% of total deaths in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

The primary responsibility of the heart is to pump blood throughout the body.

It pumps blood from the body — called the <a href="Systemic_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic circulation">systemic circulation</a> — through the <a href="Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> — called the <a href="Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a> — and then back out to the body. This means that the heart is connected to and affects the entirety of the body. Simplified, the heart is a circuit of the <a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> While plenty is known about the healthy heart, the bulk of study in cardiology is in disorders of the heart and restoration, and where possible, of function.

The heart is a muscle that squeezes blood and functions like a pump. The heart's systems can be classified as either electrical or mechanical, and both of these systems are susceptible to failure or dysfunction.

The electrical system of the heart is centered on the periodic contraction (squeezing) of the <a href="Myocardium" class="mw-redirect" title="Myocardium">muscle cells</a> that is caused by the <a href="Cardiac_pacemaker" title="Cardiac pacemaker">cardiac pacemaker</a> located in the <a href="Sinoatrial_node" title="Sinoatrial node">sinoatrial node</a>.

The study of the electrical aspects is a sub-field of <a href="Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiology</a> called <a href="Cardiac_electrophysiology" title="Cardiac electrophysiology">cardiac electrophysiology</a> and is epitomized with the electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG).

The <a href="Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</a> generated in the pacemaker propagate throughout the heart in a specific pattern. The system that carries this potential is called the <a href="Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction system of the heart">electrical conduction system</a>.

Dysfunction of the electrical system manifests in many ways and may include <a href="Wolff%E2%80%93Parkinson%E2%80%93White_syndrome" title="Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome">Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome</a>, <a href="Ventricular_fibrillation" title="Ventricular fibrillation">ventricular fibrillation</a>, and <a href="Heart_block" title="Heart block">heart block</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

The mechanical system of the heart is centered on the <a href="Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics">fluidic movement</a> of blood and the functionality of the heart as a <a href="Pump" title="Pump">pump</a>.

The mechanical part is ultimately the purpose of the heart and many of the disorders of the heart disrupt the ability to move blood.

<a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">Heart failure</a> is one condition in which the mechanical properties of the heart have failed or are failing, which means insufficient blood is being circulated. Failure to move a sufficient amount of blood through the body can cause damage or failure of other organs and may result in death if severe.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coronary_circulation">Coronary circulation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Coronary_circulation" title="Coronary circulation">Coronary circulation</a></div>

Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the <a href="Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a> of the <a href="Heart_muscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart muscle">heart muscle</a> (the myocardium). The vessels that deliver oxygen-rich blood to the myocardium are known as coronary arteries. The vessels that remove the deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle are known as cardiac veins. These include the <a href="Great_cardiac_vein" title="Great cardiac vein">great cardiac vein</a>, the <a href="Middle_cardiac_vein" title="Middle cardiac vein">middle cardiac vein</a>, the <a href="Small_cardiac_vein" title="Small cardiac vein">small cardiac vein</a> and the <a href="Anterior_cardiac_veins" title="Anterior cardiac veins">anterior cardiac veins</a>.

As the left and right coronary arteries run on the surface of the heart, they can be called epicardial coronary arteries. These arteries, when healthy, are capable of autoregulation to maintain coronary blood flow at levels appropriate to the needs of the heart muscle. These relatively narrow vessels are commonly affected by <a href="Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> and can become blocked, causing <a href="Angina_pectoris" class="mw-redirect" title="Angina pectoris">angina</a> or myocardial infarction (a.k.a., a heart attack). The coronary arteries that run deep within the myocardium are referred to as subendocardial.

The coronary arteries are classified as "end circulation", since they represent the only source of blood supply to the myocardium; there is very little redundant blood supply, which is why blockage of these vessels can be so critical.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiac_examination">Cardiac examination</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cardiac_examination" title="Cardiac examination">Cardiac examination</a></div>

The cardiac examination (also called the "precordial exam"), is performed as part of a <a href="Physical_examination" title="Physical examination">physical examination</a>, or when a patient presents with <a href="Chest_pain" title="Chest pain">chest pain</a> suggestive of a cardiovascular <a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a>. It would typically be modified depending on the <a href="Indication_(medicine)" title="Indication (medicine)">indication</a> and integrated with other examinations especially the <a href="Respiratory_examination" title="Respiratory examination">respiratory examination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

Like all medical examinations, the cardiac examination follows the standard structure of inspection, palpation and auscultation.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heart_disorders">Heart disorders</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="List_of_heart_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of heart disorders">List of heart disorders</a></div>

Cardiology is concerned with the normal functionality of the heart and the deviation from a healthy heart. Many disorders involve the heart itself, but some are outside of the heart and in the vascular system. Collectively, the two are jointly termed the cardiovascular system, and diseases of one part tend to affect the other.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coronary_artery_disease">Coronary artery disease</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">Coronary artery disease</a></div>

Coronary artery disease, also known as "ischemic heart disease",<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> is a group of diseases that includes: <a href="Stable_angina" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable angina">stable angina</a>, <a href="Unstable_angina" title="Unstable angina">unstable angina</a>, myocardial infarction, and is one of the causes of <a href="Sudden_cardiac_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudden cardiac death">sudden cardiac death</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wong2014-27">[27]</a> It is within the group of cardiovascular diseases of which it is the most common type.<a href="#cite_note-pmid25530442-28">[28]</a> A common symptom is <a href="Chest_pain" title="Chest pain">chest pain</a> or discomfort which may travel into the shoulder, arm, back, neck, or jaw.<a href="#cite_note-HLB2014-29">[29]</a> Occasionally it may feel like <a href="Heartburn" title="Heartburn">heartburn</a>. Usually symptoms occur with exercise or emotional <a href="Stress_(psychological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (psychological)">stress</a>, last less than a few minutes, and get better with rest.<a href="#cite_note-HLB2014-29">[29]</a> <a href="Shortness_of_breath" title="Shortness of breath">Shortness of breath</a> may also occur and sometimes no symptoms are present.<a href="#cite_note-HLB2014-29">[29]</a> The first sign is occasionally a heart attack.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2013-30">[30]</a> Other complications include <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a> or an <a href="Heart_arrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart arrhythmia">irregular heartbeat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2013-30">[30]</a>

Risk factors include: <a href="Hypertension" title="Hypertension">high blood pressure</a>, <a href="Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">smoking</a>, <a href="Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes</a>, lack of exercise, <a href="Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, <a href="Hypercholesterolaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypercholesterolaemia">high blood cholesterol</a>, poor diet, and excessive <a href="Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a>, among others.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2011b-32">[32]</a> Other risks include <a href="Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The underlying mechanism involves <a href="Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> of the <a href="Coronary_circulation" title="Coronary circulation">arteries of the heart</a>. A number of tests may help with diagnoses including: electrocardiogram, <a href="Cardiac_stress_test" title="Cardiac stress test">cardiac stress testing</a>, <a href="Coronary_computed_tomographic_angiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary computed tomographic angiography">coronary computed tomographic angiography</a>, and <a href="Coronary_catheterization" title="Coronary catheterization">coronary angiogram</a>, among others.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

Prevention is by eating a healthy diet, regular exercise, maintaining a healthy weight and not smoking.<a href="#cite_note-HLB2013P-35">[35]</a> Sometimes medication for diabetes, high cholesterol, or high blood pressure are also used.<a href="#cite_note-HLB2013P-35">[35]</a> There is limited evidence for screening people who are at low risk and do not have symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Treatment involves the same measures as prevention.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-HLB2013Tr-38">[38]</a> Additional medications such as <a href="Antiplatelet_drug" title="Antiplatelet drug">antiplatelets</a> including <a href="Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>, <a href="Beta_blocker" title="Beta blocker">beta blockers</a>, or <a href="Medical_use_of_nitroglycerin" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical use of nitroglycerin">nitroglycerin</a> may be recommended.<a href="#cite_note-HLB2013Tr-38">[38]</a> Procedures such as <a href="Percutaneous_coronary_intervention" title="Percutaneous coronary intervention">percutaneous coronary intervention</a> (PCI) or <a href="Coronary_artery_bypass_surgery" title="Coronary artery bypass surgery">coronary artery bypass surgery</a> (CABG) may be used in severe disease.<a href="#cite_note-HLB2013Tr-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In those with stable CAD it is unclear if PCI or CABG in addition to the other treatments improve <a href="Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> or decreases heart attack risk.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>

In 2013 CAD was the <a href="Most_common_causes_of_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Most common causes of death">most common cause of death</a> globally, resulting in 8.14 million deaths (16.8%) up from 5.74 million deaths (12%) in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-pmid25530442-28">[28]</a> The risk of death from CAD for a given age has decreased between 1980 and 2010 especially in <a href="Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The number of cases of CAD for a given age has also decreased between 1990 and 2010.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In the U.S. in 2010 about 20% of those over 65 had CAD, while it was present in 7% of those 45 to 64, and 1.3% of those 18 to 45.<a href="#cite_note-US2011-43">[43]</a> Rates are higher among men than women of a given age.<a href="#cite_note-US2011-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiomyopathy">Cardiomyopathy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cardiomyopathy" title="Cardiomyopathy">Cardiomyopathy</a></div>

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Heart failure, or formally cardiomyopathy, is the impaired function of the heart, and there are numerous causes and forms of heart failure.

The causes of cardiomyopathy can be <a href="Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic</a>, viral, or lifestyle-related. Key symptoms of cardiomyopathy include shortness of breath, fatigue, and irregular heartbeats. Understanding the specific function of cardiac muscle is crucial, as the heart muscle's main role is to pump blood throughout the body efficiently.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiac_arrhythmia">Cardiac arrhythmia</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Arrhythmia" title="Arrhythmia">Arrhythmia</a></div>

Cardiac arrhythmia, also known as "cardiac dysrhythmia" or "irregular heartbeat", is a group of conditions in which the <a href="Cardiac_cycle" title="Cardiac cycle">heartbeat</a> is too fast, too slow, or irregular in its rhythm. A <a href="Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a> that is too fast – above 100 beats per minute in adults – is called <a href="Tachycardia" title="Tachycardia">tachycardia</a>. A heart rate that is too slow – below 60 beats per minute – is called <a href="Bradycardia" title="Bradycardia">bradycardia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Def-45">[45]</a> Many types of arrhythmia present no symptoms. When symptoms are present, they may include <a href="Palpitations" title="Palpitations">palpitations</a>, or feeling a pause between heartbeats. More serious symptoms may include <a href="Presyncope" class="mw-redirect" title="Presyncope">lightheadedness</a>, <a href="Syncope_(medicine)" title="Syncope (medicine)">passing out</a>, <a href="Shortness_of_breath" title="Shortness of breath">shortness of breath</a>, or <a href="Chest_pain" title="Chest pain">chest pain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Sym-a-46">[46]</a> While most types of arrhythmia are not serious, some predispose a person to complications such as <a href="Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> or <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Def-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Type-47">[47]</a> Others may result in <a href="Cardiac_arrest" title="Cardiac arrest">cardiac arrest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Type-47">[47]</a>

There are four main types of arrhythmia: <a href="Premature_heart_beat" title="Premature heart beat">extra beats</a>, <a href="Supraventricular_tachycardia" title="Supraventricular tachycardia">supraventricular tachycardias</a>, <a href="Ventricular_arrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventricular arrhythmia">ventricular arrhythmias</a>, and <a href="Bradyarrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bradyarrhythmia">bradyarrhythmias</a>. Extra beats include <a href="Premature_atrial_contraction" title="Premature atrial contraction">premature atrial contractions</a>, <a href="Premature_ventricular_contraction" title="Premature ventricular contraction">premature ventricular contractions</a>, and <a href="Premature_junctional_contractions" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature junctional contractions">premature junctional contractions</a>. Supraventricular tachycardias include <a href="Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a>, <a href="Atrial_flutter" title="Atrial flutter">atrial flutter</a>, and <a href="Paroxysmal_supraventricular_tachycardia" title="Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia">paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia</a>. Ventricular arrhythmias include <a href="Ventricular_fibrillation" title="Ventricular fibrillation">ventricular fibrillation</a> and <a href="Ventricular_tachycardia" title="Ventricular tachycardia">ventricular tachycardia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Type-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin2012-48">[48]</a> Arrhythmias are due to problems with the <a href="Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction system of the heart">electrical conduction system of the heart</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Def-45">[45]</a> Arrhythmias may occur in children; however, the normal range for the heart rate is different and depends on age.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Type-47">[47]</a> A number of tests can help diagnose arrhythmia, including an electrocardiogram and <a href="Holter_monitor" title="Holter monitor">Holter monitor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

Most arrhythmias can be effectively treated.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Def-45">[45]</a> Treatments may include medications, medical procedures such as a <a href="Pacemaker" title="Pacemaker">pacemaker</a>, and surgery. Medications for a fast heart rate may include <a href="Beta_blockers" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta blockers">beta blockers</a> or <a href="Antiarrhythmic_agent" title="Antiarrhythmic agent">agents that attempt to restore a normal heart rhythm</a> such as <a href="Procainamide" title="Procainamide">procainamide</a>. This later group may have more significant side effects especially if taken for a long period of time. Pacemakers are often used for slow heart rates. Those with an irregular heartbeat are often treated with <a href="Blood_thinner" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood thinner">blood thinners</a> to reduce the risk of complications. Those who have severe symptoms from an arrhythmia may receive urgent treatment with a jolt of electricity in the form of <a href="Cardioversion" title="Cardioversion">cardioversion</a> or <a href="Defibrillation" title="Defibrillation">defibrillation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Tx-Arrhythmias-50">[50]</a>

Arrhythmia affects millions of people.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Risk-51">[51]</a> In Europe and North America, as of 2014, atrial fibrillation affects about 2% to 3% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-Zoni2014-52">[52]</a> Atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter resulted in 112,000 deaths in 2013, up from 29,000 in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-pmid25530442-28">[28]</a> <a href="Sudden_cardiac_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudden cardiac death">Sudden cardiac death</a> is the cause of about half of deaths due to cardiovascular disease or about 15% of all deaths globally.<a href="#cite_note-Meh2007-53">[53]</a> About 80% of sudden cardiac death is the result of ventricular arrhythmias.<a href="#cite_note-Meh2007-53">[53]</a> Arrhythmias may occur at any age but are more common among older people.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Risk-51">[51]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiac_arrest">Cardiac arrest</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cardiac_arrest" title="Cardiac arrest">Cardiac arrest</a></div>

Cardiac arrest is a sudden stop in effective <a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">blood flow</a> due to the failure of the heart to contract effectively.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2016What-54">[54]</a> Symptoms include <a href="Unconsciousness" title="Unconsciousness">loss of consciousness</a> and <a href="Respiratory_arrest" title="Respiratory arrest">abnormal or absent breathing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fie2009-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIH2016Sign-56">[56]</a> Some people may have <a href="Chest_pain" title="Chest pain">chest pain</a>, <a href="Shortness_of_breath" title="Shortness of breath">shortness of breath</a>, or <a href="Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a> before this occurs.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2016Sign-56">[56]</a> If not treated within minutes, <a href="Death" title="Death">death</a> usually occurs.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2016What-54">[54]</a>

The most common cause of cardiac arrest is <a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a>. Less common causes include <a href="Bleeding" title="Bleeding">major blood loss</a>, lack of oxygen, <a href="Hypokalemia" title="Hypokalemia">very low potassium</a>, <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>, and intense physical exercise. A number of inherited disorders may also increase the risk including <a href="Long_QT_syndrome" title="Long QT syndrome">long QT syndrome</a>. The initial heart rhythm is most often <a href="Ventricular_fibrillation" title="Ventricular fibrillation">ventricular fibrillation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2016Ca-57">[57]</a> The diagnosis is confirmed by finding no pulse.<a href="#cite_note-Fie2009-55">[55]</a> While a cardiac arrest may be caused by heart attack or heart failure these are not the same.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2016What-54">[54]</a>

Prevention includes not smoking, physical activity, and maintaining a healthy weight.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2016Pre-58">[58]</a> Treatment for cardiac arrest is immediate <a href="Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation" title="Cardiopulmonary resuscitation">cardiopulmonary resuscitation</a> (CPR) and, if a <a href="Shockable_rhythm" class="mw-redirect" title="Shockable rhythm">shockable rhythm</a> is present, <a href="Defibrillation" title="Defibrillation">defibrillation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2016Tx-59">[59]</a> Among those who survive <a href="Targeted_temperature_management" title="Targeted temperature management">targeted temperature management</a> may improve outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27521472-60">[60]</a> An <a href="Implantable_cardiac_defibrillator" class="mw-redirect" title="Implantable cardiac defibrillator">implantable cardiac defibrillator</a> may be placed to reduce the chance of death from recurrence.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2016Pre-58">[58]</a>

In the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, cardiac arrest outside of <a href="Hospital" title="Hospital">hospital</a> occurs in about 13 per 10,000 people per year (326,000 cases). In hospital cardiac arrest occurs in an additional 209,000<a href="#cite_note-pmid26472992-61">[61]</a> Cardiac arrest becomes more common with age. It affects males more often than females.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2016Risk-62">[62]</a> The percentage of people who survive with treatment is about 8%. Many who survive have significant <a href="Disability" title="Disability">disability</a>. Many U.S. television shows, however, have portrayed unrealistically high survival rates of 67%.<a href="#cite_note-Adam2012-63">[63]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypertension">Hypertension</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hypertension" title="Hypertension">Hypertension</a></div>

<a href="Hypertension" title="Hypertension">Hypertension</a>, also known as "high blood pressure", is a <a href="Chronic_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic (medicine)">long term</a> <a href="Disease" title="Disease">medical condition</a> in which the <a href="Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> in the <a href="Artery" title="Artery">arteries</a> is persistently elevated.<a href="#cite_note-Nai2014-64">[64]</a> High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015-65">[65]</a> Long term high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for <a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a>, <a href="Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>, <a href="Peripheral_vascular_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral vascular disease">peripheral vascular disease</a>, <a href="Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">vision loss</a>, and <a href="Chronic_kidney_disease" title="Chronic kidney disease">chronic kidney disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2011a-67">[67]</a>

Lifestyle factors can increase the risk of hypertension. These include <a href="Salt_and_cardiovascular_disease" title="Salt and cardiovascular disease">excess salt</a> in the diet, <a href="Overweight" title="Overweight">excess body weight</a>, <a href="Smoking" title="Smoking">smoking</a>, and alcohol consumption.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lancet2015-68">[68]</a> Hypertension can also be caused by other diseases, or occur as a side-effect of drugs.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>

Blood pressure is expressed by two measurements, the <a href="Systole_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Systole (medicine)">systolic</a> and <a href="Diastolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diastolic">diastolic</a> pressures, which are the maximum and minimum pressures, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015-65">[65]</a> Normal blood pressure when at rest is within the range of 100–140 <a href="Millimeter_of_mercury" class="mw-redirect" title="Millimeter of mercury">millimeters mercury</a> (mmHg) systolic and 60–90 mmHg diastolic.<a href="#cite_note-EU2013-70">[70]</a> High blood pressure is present if the resting blood pressure is persistently at or above 140/90 mmHg for most adults.<a href="#cite_note-Lancet2015-68">[68]</a> Different numbers apply to children.<a href="#cite_note-JNC8-71">[71]</a> When diagnosing high blood pressure, <a href="Ambulatory_blood_pressure_monitoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring">ambulatory blood pressure monitoring</a> over a 24-hour period appears to be more accurate than "in-office" <a href="Blood_pressure_measurement" title="Blood pressure measurement">blood pressure measurement</a> at a physician's office or other blood pressure screening location.<a href="#cite_note-Nai2014-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lancet2015-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stergiou-Kollias-72">[72]</a>

Lifestyle changes and medications can lower blood pressure and decrease the risk of health complications.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2015Tx-73">[73]</a> Lifestyle changes include weight loss, decreased salt intake, physical exercise, and a healthy diet.<a href="#cite_note-Lancet2015-68">[68]</a> If changes in lifestyle are insufficient, <a href="Blood_pressure_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood pressure medication">blood pressure medications</a> may be used.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2015Tx-73">[73]</a> A regimen of up to three medications effectively controls blood pressure in 90% of people.<a href="#cite_note-Lancet2015-68">[68]</a> The treatment of moderate to severe high arterial blood pressure (defined as >160/100 mmHg) with medication is associated with an improved <a href="Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> and reduced <a href="Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">morbidity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The effect of treatment for blood pressure between 140/90 mmHg and 160/100 mmHg is less clear, with some studies finding benefits<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> while others do not.<a href="#cite_note-Diao2012-77">[77]</a> High blood pressure affects between 16% and 37% of the population globally.<a href="#cite_note-Lancet2015-68">[68]</a> In 2010, hypertension was believed to have been a factor in 18% (9.4 million) deaths.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Essential_vs_Secondary_hypertension">Essential vs Secondary hypertension</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Essential_hypertension" title="Essential hypertension">Essential hypertension</a> and <a href="Secondary_hypertension" title="Secondary hypertension">Secondary hypertension</a></div>

Essential hypertension is the form of <a href="Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> that by definition has no identifiable cause. It is the most common type of hypertension, affecting 95% of hypertensive patients,<a href="#cite_note-pmid10645931-a-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid14597461-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-7216-0240-1-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-urlHypertension:_eMedicine_Nephrology-82">[82]</a> it tends to be familial and is likely to be the consequence of an interaction between <a href="Environment_(biophysical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (biophysical)">environmental</a> and <a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> factors. <a href="Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a> of essential hypertension increases with <a href="Ageing" title="Ageing">age</a>, and individuals with relatively high blood pressure at younger ages are at increased risk for the subsequent development of hypertension.

Hypertension can increase the risk of <a href="Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebral</a>, <a href="Cardiac" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac">cardiac</a>, and <a href="Renal" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal">renal</a> events.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17707755-83">[83]</a>

<a href="Secondary_hypertension" title="Secondary hypertension">Secondary hypertension</a> is a type of <a href="Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> which is caused by an identifiable underlying secondary cause. It is much less common than essential hypertension, affecting only 5% of hypertensive patients. It has many different causes including <a href="Endocrine_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocrine diseases">endocrine diseases</a>, <a href="Kidney_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidney diseases">kidney diseases</a>, and <a href="Tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumors">tumors</a>. It also can be a <a href="Adverse_effect" title="Adverse effect">side effect</a> of many <a href="Medications" class="mw-redirect" title="Medications">medications</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Complications_of_hypertension">Complications of hypertension</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Complications_of_hypertension" title="Complications of hypertension">Complications of hypertension</a></div>

<a href="Complications_of_hypertension" title="Complications of hypertension">Complications of hypertension</a> are clinical outcomes that result from <a href="Hypertension" title="Hypertension">persistent elevation</a> of blood pressure.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19393824-85">[85]</a> Hypertension is a risk factor for all clinical manifestations of <a href="Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> since it is a risk factor for atherosclerosis itself.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19110086-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19394559-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19275607-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19138169-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19124420-90">[90]</a> It is an independent predisposing factor for <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid19427498-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19427502-92">[92]</a> <a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid19363848-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19427499-94">[94]</a> <a href="Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid19393824-85">[85]</a> <a href="Renal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal disease">renal disease</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid12728683-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19195963-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid11842376-97">[97]</a> and <a href="Peripheral_arterial_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral arterial disease">peripheral arterial disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18672184-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19008688-99">[99]</a> It is the most important <a href="Risk_factor_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk factor (epidemiology)">risk factor</a> for <a href="Cardiovascular" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular">cardiovascular</a> <a href="Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">morbidity</a> and <a href="Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality</a>, in <a href="Industrialized_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialized countries">industrialized countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19149532-100">[100]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congenital_heart_defects">Congenital heart defects</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Congenital_heart_defect" title="Congenital heart defect">Congenital heart defect</a></div>

A congenital heart defect, also known as a "congenital heart anomaly" or "congenital heart disease", is a problem in the structure of the heart that is present at <a href="Childbirth" title="Childbirth">birth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011-101">[101]</a> Signs and symptoms depend on the specific type of problem.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-102">[102]</a> Symptoms can vary from none to life-threatening.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011-101">[101]</a> When present they may include rapid breathing, <a href="Cyanosis" title="Cyanosis">bluish skin</a>, poor weight gain, and feeling tired.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Sym-b-103">[103]</a> It does not cause chest pain.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Sym-b-103">[103]</a> Most congenital heart problems do not occur with other diseases.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-102">[102]</a> Complications that can result from heart defects include <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Sym-b-103">[103]</a>

The cause of a congenital heart defect is often unknown.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Certain cases may be due to infections during <a href="Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> such as <a href="Rubella" title="Rubella">rubella</a>, use of certain medications or drugs such as <a href="Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a> or <a href="Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, parents being closely related, or poor nutritional status or <a href="Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a> in the mother.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dean2014-105">[105]</a> Having a parent with a congenital heart defect is also a risk factor.<a href="#cite_note-Mil2011-106">[106]</a> A number of genetic conditions are associated with heart defects including <a href="Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>, <a href="Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a>, and <a href="Marfan_syndrome" title="Marfan syndrome">Marfan syndrome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-102">[102]</a> Congenital heart defects are divided into two main groups: <a href="Cyanotic_heart_defect" title="Cyanotic heart defect">cyanotic heart defects</a> and <a href="Non-cyanotic_heart_defect" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-cyanotic heart defect">non-cyanotic heart defects</a>, depending on whether the child has the potential to turn bluish in color.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-102">[102]</a> The problems may involve the interior walls of the heart, the <a href="Heart_valves" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart valves">heart valves</a>, or the large blood vessels that lead to and from the heart.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011-101">[101]</a>

Congenital heart defects are partly preventable through <a href="Rubella_vaccination" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubella vaccination">rubella vaccination</a>, the adding of <a href="Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a> to salt, and the adding of <a href="Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a> to certain food products.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-102">[102]</a> Some defects do not need treatment.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011-101">[101]</a> Other may be effectively treated with <a href="Catheter_procedure" class="mw-redirect" title="Catheter procedure">catheter based procedures</a> or <a href="Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">heart surgery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Tx-107">[107]</a> Occasionally a number of operations may be needed.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Tx-107">[107]</a> Occasionally <a href="Heart_transplantation" title="Heart transplantation">heart transplantation</a> is required.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011Tx-107">[107]</a> With appropriate treatment outcomes, even with complex problems, are generally good.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2011-101">[101]</a>

Heart defects are the most common <a href="Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">birth defect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-GBD2015-108">[108]</a> In 2013 they were present in 34.3 million people globally.<a href="#cite_note-GBD2015-108">[108]</a> They affect between 4 and 75 per 1,000 live births depending upon how they are diagnosed.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mil2011-106">[106]</a> About 6 to 19 per 1,000 cause a moderate to severe degree of problems.<a href="#cite_note-Mil2011-106">[106]</a> Congenital heart defects are the leading cause of birth defect-related deaths.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-102">[102]</a> In 2013 they resulted in 323,000 deaths down from 366,000 deaths in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-pmid25530442-28">[28]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tetralogy_of_Fallot">Tetralogy of Fallot</h4></div>

<a href="Tetralogy_of_Fallot" title="Tetralogy of Fallot">Tetralogy of Fallot</a> is the most common congenital heart disease arising in 1–3 cases per 1,000 births. The cause of this defect is a <a href="Ventricular_septal_defect" title="Ventricular septal defect">ventricular septal defect</a> (VSD) and an <a href="Overriding_aorta" title="Overriding aorta">overriding aorta</a>. These two defects combined causes deoxygenated blood to bypass the lungs and going right back into the circulatory system. The <a href="Modified_Blalock-Taussig_shunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Modified Blalock-Taussig shunt">modified Blalock-Taussig shunt</a> is usually used to fix the circulation. This procedure is done by placing a graft between the subclavian artery and the ipsilateral pulmonary artery to restore the correct blood flow.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pulmonary_atresia">Pulmonary atresia</h4></div>

<a href="Pulmonary_atresia" title="Pulmonary atresia">Pulmonary atresia</a> happens in 7–8 per 100,000 births and is characterized by the aorta branching out of the right ventricle. This causes the deoxygenated blood to bypass the lungs and enter the circulatory system. Surgeries can fix this by redirecting the aorta and fixing the right ventricle and pulmonary artery connection.

There are two types of pulmonary atresia, classified by whether or not the baby also has a <a href="Ventricular_septal_defect" title="Ventricular septal defect">ventricular septal defect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Medscape2015-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-110">[110]</a>

<ul><li>Pulmonary atresia with an intact ventricular septum: This type of pulmonary atresia is associated with complete and intact <a href="Septum" title="Septum">septum</a> between the ventricles.<a href="#cite_note-:0-110">[110]</a></li>

<li>Pulmonary atresia with a ventricular septal defect: This type of pulmonary atresia happens when a ventricular septal defect allows blood to flow into and out of the right ventricle.<a href="#cite_note-:0-110">[110]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Double_outlet_right_ventricle">Double outlet right ventricle</h4></div>

<a href="Double_outlet_right_ventricle" title="Double outlet right ventricle">Double outlet right ventricle</a> (DORV) is when both great arteries, the pulmonary artery and the aorta, are connected to the right ventricle. There is usually a VSD in different particular places depending on the variations of DORV, typically 50% are subaortic and 30%. The surgeries that can be done to fix this defect can vary due to the different physiology and blood flow in the defected heart. One way it can be cured is by a VSD closure and placing conduits to restart the blood flow between the left ventricle and the aorta and between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. Another way is systemic-to-pulmonary artery shunt in cases associated with <a href="Pulmonic_stenosis" title="Pulmonic stenosis">pulmonary stenosis</a>. Also, a <a href="Atrial_septostomy" title="Atrial septostomy">balloon atrial septostomy</a> can be done to relieve hypoxemia caused by DORV with the Taussig-Bing anomaly while surgical correction is awaited.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transposition_of_great_arteries">Transposition of great arteries</h4></div>

There are two different types of <a href="Transposition_of_the_great_vessels" title="Transposition of the great vessels">transposition of the great arteries</a>, <a href="Dextro-Transposition_of_the_great_arteries" title="Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries">Dextro-transposition of the great arteries</a> and <a href="Levo-Transposition_of_the_great_arteries" title="Levo-Transposition of the great arteries">Levo-transposition of the great arteries</a>, depending on where the chambers and vessels connect. Dextro-transposition happens in about 1 in 4,000 newborns and is when the right ventricle pumps blood into the aorta and deoxygenated blood enters the bloodstream. The temporary procedure is to create an <a href="Atrial_septal_defect" title="Atrial septal defect">atrial septal defect</a>. A permanent fix is more complicated and involves redirecting the pulmonary return to the right atrium and the systemic return to the left atrium, which is known as the <a href="Senning_procedure" title="Senning procedure">Senning procedure</a>. The <a href="Rastelli_procedure" title="Rastelli procedure">Rastelli procedure</a> can also be done by rerouting the left ventricular outflow, dividing the pulmonary trunk, and placing a conduit in between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk. Levo-transposition happens in about 1 in 13,000 newborns and is characterized by the left ventricle pumping blood into the lungs and the right ventricle pumping the blood into the aorta. This may not produce problems at the beginning, but will eventually due to the different pressures each ventricle uses to pump blood. Switching the left ventricle to be the systemic ventricle and the right ventricle to pump blood into the pulmonary artery can repair levo-transposition.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persistent_truncus_arteriosus">Persistent truncus arteriosus</h4></div>

<a href="Persistent_truncus_arteriosus" title="Persistent truncus arteriosus">Persistent truncus arteriosus</a> is when the <a href="Truncus_arteriosus" title="Truncus arteriosus">truncus arteriosus</a> fails to split into the aorta and pulmonary trunk. This occurs in about 1 in 11,000 live births and allows both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood into the body. The repair consists of a VSD closure and the Rastelli procedure.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ebstein's_anomaly">Ebstein's anomaly</h4></div>

<a href="Ebstein's_anomaly" title="Ebstein's anomaly">Ebstein's anomaly</a> is characterized by a right atrium that is significantly enlarged and a heart that is shaped like a box. This is very rare and happens in less than 1% of congenital heart disease cases. The surgical repair varies depending on the severity of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a>

Pediatric cardiology is a sub-specialty of <a href="Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">pediatrics</a>. To become a pediatric cardiologist in the U.S., one must complete a three-year residency in pediatrics, followed by a three-year fellowship in pediatric cardiology. Per <a href="Doximity" title="Doximity">doximity</a>, pediatric cardiologists make an average of $303,917 in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-r1-5">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnostic_tests_in_cardiology">Diagnostic tests in cardiology</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Diagnostic_tests_in_cardiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic tests in cardiology">Diagnostic tests in cardiology</a></div>

<a href="Diagnostic_tests_in_cardiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic tests in cardiology">Diagnostic tests in cardiology</a> are the methods of identifying heart conditions associated with healthy vs. unhealthy, <a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">pathologic</a> heart function. The starting point is obtaining a <a href="Medical_history" title="Medical history">medical history</a>, followed by <a href="Auscultation" title="Auscultation">Auscultation</a>. Then <a href="Blood_test" title="Blood test">blood tests</a>, <a href="Cardiology_diagnostic_tests_and_procedures#Electrophysiology" title="Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures">electrophysiological procedures</a>, and <a href="Cardiac_imaging" title="Cardiac imaging">cardiac imaging</a> can be ordered for further analysis. Electrophysiological procedures include electrocardiogram, <a href="Cardiac_monitoring" title="Cardiac monitoring">cardiac monitoring</a>, <a href="Cardiac_stress_test" title="Cardiac stress test">cardiac stress testing</a>, and the <a href="Electrophysiology_study" title="Electrophysiology study">electrophysiology study</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trials">Trials</h2></div>

Cardiology is known for <a href="Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a> that guide clinical treatment of cardiac diseases. While dozens are published every year, there are landmark trials that shift treatment significantly. Trials often have an acronym of the trial name, and this acronym is used to reference the trial and its results. Some of these landmark trials include:

<ul><li>V-HeFT (1986) — use of vasodilators (hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate) in heart failure</li>

<li>ISIS-2 (1988) — use of aspirin in myocardial infarction</li>

<li><a href="Cardiac_Arrhythmia_Suppression_Trial" title="Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial">CAST</a> (1991) — use of <a href="Antiarrhythmic_agent" title="Antiarrhythmic agent">antiarrhythmic agents</a> after a heart attack increases mortality</li>

<li>SOLVD (1991) — use of <a href="ACE_inhibitor" title="ACE inhibitor">ACE inhibitors</a> in heart failure</li>

<li>4S (1994) — <a href="Statin" title="Statin">statins</a> reduce risk of heart disease</li>

<li>CURE (1991) — use of <a href="Dual_antiplatelet_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual antiplatelet therapy">dual antiplatelet therapy</a> in <a href="NSTEMI" class="mw-redirect" title="NSTEMI">NSTEMI</a></li>

<li>MIRACLE (2002) — use of <a href="Cardiac_resynchronization_therapy" title="Cardiac resynchronization therapy">cardiac resynchronization therapy</a> in heart failure</li>

<li>SCD-HeFT (2005) — the use of <a href="Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator" title="Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator">implantable cardioverter-defibrillator</a> in heart failure</li>

<li>RELY (2009), ROCKET-AF (2011), ARISTOTLE (2011) — use of <a href="DOAC" class="mw-redirect" title="DOAC">DOACs</a> in <a href="Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a> instead of warfarin</li>

<li>PARADIGM-HF (2014) — use of angiotensin-neprilysin inhibitor in heart failure</li>

<li>ISCHEMIA (2020) — medical therapy is as good as <a href="Coronary_stent" title="Coronary stent">coronary stents</a> in stable heart disease</li>

<li>EMPEROR-Preserved (2021) — SGLT2 receptors in heart failure</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cardiology_community">Cardiology community</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Associations">Associations</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="American_College_of_Cardiology" title="American College of Cardiology">American College of Cardiology</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Heart_Association" title="American Heart Association">American Heart Association</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Society_of_Cardiology" title="European Society of Cardiology">European Society of Cardiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_Rhythm_Society" title="Heart Rhythm Society">Heart Rhythm Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_Cardiovascular_Society" title="Canadian Cardiovascular Society">Canadian Cardiovascular Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_Heart_Association" title="Indian Heart Association">Indian Heart Association</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Heart_Foundation_of_Australia" title="National Heart Foundation of Australia">National Heart Foundation of Australia</a></li>

<li>Cardiology Society of India</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journals">Journals</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Acta_Cardiologica" title="Acta Cardiologica">Acta Cardiologica</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Journal_of_Cardiology" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Cardiology">American Journal of Cardiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Annals_of_Cardiac_Anaesthesia" title="Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia">Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Current_Research%3A_Cardiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Current Research: Cardiology">Current Research: Cardiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiology_in_Review" title="Cardiology in Review">Cardiology in Review</a></li>

<li><a href="Circulation_(journal)" title="Circulation (journal)">Circulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Circulation_Research" title="Circulation Research">Circulation Research</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypertension" title="Clinical and Experimental Hypertension">Clinical and Experimental Hypertension</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_Cardiology" title="Clinical Cardiology">Clinical Cardiology</a></li>

<li><a href="EP_%E2%80%93_Europace" class="mw-redirect" title="EP – Europace">EP – Europace</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Heart_Journal" title="European Heart Journal">European Heart Journal</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_(journal)" title="Heart (journal)">Heart</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_Rhythm" title="Heart Rhythm">Heart Rhythm</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Journal_of_Cardiology" title="International Journal of Cardiology">International Journal of Cardiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Journal_of_the_American_College_of_Cardiology" title="Journal of the American College of Cardiology">Journal of the American College of Cardiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pacing_and_Clinical_Electrophysiology" title="Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology">Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology</a></li>

<li>Indian Heart Journal</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiologists">Cardiologists</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="List_of_cardiologists" title="List of cardiologists">List of cardiologists</a></div>

<ul><li><a href="Robert_Atkins_(nutritionist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Atkins (nutritionist)">Robert Atkins</a> (1930–2003), known for the <a href="Atkins_diet" title="Atkins diet">Atkins diet</a></li>

<li><a href="Christiaan_Barnard" title="Christiaan Barnard">Christiaan Barnard</a> (1922–2001), cardiac surgeon who performed the world's first human-to-human heart transplant operation</li>

<li><a href="Eugene_Braunwald" title="Eugene Braunwald">Eugene Braunwald</a> (born 1929), editor of Braunwald's Heart Disease and 1000+ publications</li>

<li><a href="Wallace_Brigden" title="Wallace Brigden">Wallace Brigden</a> (1916–2008), identified <a href="Cardiomyopathy" title="Cardiomyopathy">cardiomyopathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Manoj_Durairaj" title="Manoj Durairaj">Manoj Durairaj</a> (1971– ), cardiologist from Pune, India who received <a href="Pro_Ecclesia_et_Pontifice" title="Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice">Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice</a></li>

<li><a href="Willem_Einthoven" title="Willem Einthoven">Willem Einthoven</a> (1860–1927), a physiologist who built the first practical ECG and won the 1924 <a href="Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> ("for the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram")</li>

<li><a href="Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Werner Forssmann</a> (1904–1979), who infamously performed the first human catheterization on himself that led to him being let go from <a href="Berliner_Charit%C3%A9_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Berliner Charité Hospital">Berliner Charité Hospital</a>, quitting cardiology as a speciality, and then winning the 1956 <a href="Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> ("for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system")</li>

<li><a href="Andreas_Gruentzig" title="Andreas Gruentzig">Andreas Gruentzig</a> (1939–1985), first developed balloon angioplasty</li>

<li><a href="William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a> (1578–1657), wrote <a href="Exercitatio_Anatomica_de_Motu_Cordis_et_Sanguinis_in_Animalibus" title="Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus">Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus</a> that first described the closed circulatory system and whom Forssmann described as founding cardiology in his Nobel lecture</li>

<li><a href="Murray_S._Hoffman" title="Murray S. Hoffman">Murray S. Hoffman</a> (1924–2018) As president of the Colorado Heart Association, he initiated one of the first jogging programs promoting cardiac health</li>

<li><a href="Max_Holzmann" title="Max Holzmann">Max Holzmann</a> (1899–1994), co-founder of the Swiss Society of Cardiology, president from 1952 to 1955</li>

<li><a href="Samuel_A._Levine" title="Samuel A. Levine">Samuel A. Levine</a> (1891–1966), recognized the sign known as <a href="Levine's_sign" title="Levine's sign">Levine's sign</a> as well as the current grading of the intensity of <a href="Heart_murmurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart murmurs">heart murmurs</a>, known as the <a href="Levine_scale" title="Levine scale">Levine scale</a></li>

<li>Henry Joseph Llewellyn "Barney" Marriott (1917–2007), ECG interpretation and Practical Electrocardiography<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Lown" title="Bernard Lown">Bernard Lown</a> (1921–2021), original developer of the defibrillator</li>

<li><a href="Woldemar_Mobitz" title="Woldemar Mobitz">Woldemar Mobitz</a> (1889–1951), described and classified the two types of <a href="Second-degree_atrioventricular_block" title="Second-degree atrioventricular block">second-degree atrioventricular block</a> often called "Mobitz Type I" and "Mobitz Type II"</li>

<li><a href="Jacqueline_Noonan" title="Jacqueline Noonan">Jacqueline Noonan</a> (1928–2020), discoverer of <a href="Noonan_syndrome" title="Noonan syndrome">Noonan syndrome</a> that is the top syndromic cause of congenital heart disease</li>

<li><a href="John_Parkinson_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Parkinson (physician)">John Parkinson</a> (1885–1976), known for <a href="Wolff%E2%80%93Parkinson%E2%80%93White_syndrome" title="Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome">Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Helen_B._Taussig" title="Helen B. Taussig">Helen B. Taussig</a> (1898–1986), founder of pediatric cardiology and extensively worked on <a href="Blue_baby_syndrome" title="Blue baby syndrome">blue baby syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Dudley_White" title="Paul Dudley White">Paul Dudley White</a> (1886–1973), known for <a href="Wolff%E2%80%93Parkinson%E2%80%93White_syndrome" title="Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome">Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Fredrick_Arthur_Willius" title="Fredrick Arthur Willius">Fredrick Arthur Willius</a> (1888–1972), founder of the cardiology department at the <a href="Mayo_Clinic" title="Mayo Clinic">Mayo Clinic</a> and an early pioneer of <a href="Electrocardiography" title="Electrocardiography">electrocardiography</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_Wolff" title="Louis Wolff">Louis Wolff</a> (1898–1972), known for <a href="Wolff%E2%80%93Parkinson%E2%80%93White_syndrome" title="Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome">Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Karel_Frederik_Wenckebach" title="Karel Frederik Wenckebach">Karel Frederik Wenckebach</a> (1864–1940), first described what is now called type I <a href="Second-degree_atrioventricular_block" title="Second-degree atrioventricular block">second-degree atrioventricular block</a> in 1898</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Glossary of medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_cardiac_pharmaceutical_agents" title="List of cardiac pharmaceutical agents">List of cardiac pharmaceutical agents</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_cardiovascular_clinical_trials" title="List of cardiovascular clinical trials">List of cardiovascular clinical trials</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_cardiology" title="Outline of cardiology">Outline of cardiology</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMaher2012" class="citation journal cs1">Maher, Toby M. (2012-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S088985611200104X">"A Clinical Approach to Diffuse Parenchymal Lung Disease"</a>. Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America. Interstitial Lung Disease and Autoimmune Lung Diseases. 32 (4): 453–472. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.iac.2012.08.004">10.1016/j.iac.2012.08.004</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0889-8561">0889-8561</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23102061">23102061</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> According to the University of California, San Francisco, a comprehensive cardiac examination involves these three critical steps: inspection, palpation, and auscultation. This process helps in evaluating the heart's condition by first observing for visible signs, then feeling for abnormalities, and finally listening to the heart sounds.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Similarly, Chamberlain University outlines that the cardiac examination starts with inspection to identify any visual anomalies, followed by palpation to assess physical findings such as thrills or heaves, and concludes with auscultation to detect any abnormal heart sounds like murmurs or gallops.

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<li id="cite_note-Medscape2015-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Medscape2015_109-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRamaswamyWebber" class="citation web cs1">Ramaswamy P, Webber HS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/892980-overview">"Ventricular Septal Defects: Background, Anatomy, Pathophysiology"</a>. Medscape. WebMD LLC. Retrieved August 22, 2017.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/congenital-cardiovascular-anomalies/persistent-truncus-arteriosus">"Persistent Truncus Arteriosus – Pediatrics"</a>. MSD Manual Professional Edition. Retrieved 2022-06-19.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBhat2016" class="citation journal cs1">Bhat, Venkatraman (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5020285">"Illustrated Imaging Essay on Congenital Heart Diseases: Multimodality Approach Part III: Cyanotic Heart Diseases and Complex Congenital Anomalies"</a>. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 10 (7): TE01–10. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7860%2Fjcdr%2F2016%2F21443.8210">10.7860/jcdr/2016/21443.8210</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5020285">5020285</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27630924">27630924</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFUpshaw2007" class="citation journal cs1">Upshaw, Charles (18 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6652921">"Henry J. L. Marriott: Lucid Teacher of Electrocardiography"</a>. Clinical Cardiology. 30 (4): 207–8. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fclc.6">10.1002/clc.6</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6652921">6652921</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17443652">17443652</a>.</cite>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBraunwald2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Eugene_Braunwald" title="Eugene Braunwald">Braunwald, Eugene</a>, ed. (2019). Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. Elsevier. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-323-46299-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRamrakhaHill2012" class="citation book cs1">Ramrakha, Punit; Hill, Jonathan, eds. (2012). Oxford Handbook of Cardiology (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-964321-9</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/cardiology" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/cardiology">cardiology</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heart.org/">American Heart Association</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Medicine685" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a> and <a href="Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a>

<li><a href="Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li>

<li><a href="Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Interventional_cardiology" title="Interventional cardiology">Interventional</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li>

<li><a href="Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li>

<li><a href="Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li>

<li><a href="Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li>

<li><a href="Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li>

<li><a href="Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Phlebology" title="Phlebology">Phlebology</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li>

<li><a href="Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a>

<ul><li><a href="Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medicine%2C_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li>

<li><a href="Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li>

<li><a href="Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw external" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li>

<li> Wikiproject</li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AMedicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li>

<li> <a href="Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arteries_and_veins88" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arteries_and_veins88" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Artery" title="Artery">Arteries</a> and <a href="Vein" title="Vein">veins</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vessels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Artery" title="Artery">Arteries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nutrient_artery" title="Nutrient artery">Nutrient artery</a></li>

<li><a href="Arteriole" title="Arteriole">Arteriole</a>

<ul><li><a href="Metarteriole" title="Metarteriole">Metarteriole</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Elastic_artery" title="Elastic artery">Elastic artery</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Capillary" title="Capillary">Capillaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Types

<ul><li><a href="Capillary#Types" title="Capillary">Continuous</a></li>

<li><a href="Capillary#Types" title="Capillary">Fenestrated</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinusoid_(blood_vessel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinusoid (blood vessel)">Sinusoidal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Precapillary_sphincter" title="Precapillary sphincter">Precapillary sphincter</a></li>

<li><a href="Precapillary_resistance" title="Precapillary resistance">Precapillary resistance</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vein" title="Vein">Veins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vena_comitans" title="Vena comitans">Vena comitans</a></li>

<li><a href="Superficial_vein" title="Superficial vein">Superficial vein</a></li>

<li><a href="Perforator_vein" title="Perforator vein">Perforator vein</a></li>

<li><a href="Emissary_veins" title="Emissary veins">Emissary veins</a></li>

<li><a href="Venous_plexus" title="Venous plexus">Venous plexus</a></li>

<li><a href="Venule" title="Venule">Venule</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Lymph" title="Lymph">Lymph</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li>

<li><a href="Lymph" title="Lymph">Lymph</a></li>

<li><a href="Lymph_capillary" title="Lymph capillary">Lymph capillary</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Circulatory_system#Systemic_circulation" title="Circulatory system">Systemic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Heart#Left_heart" title="Heart">Left heart</a> → <a href="Aorta" title="Aorta">Aorta</a> → <a href="Artery" title="Artery">Arteries</a> → <a href="Arteriole" title="Arteriole">Arterioles</a> → <a href="Capillary" title="Capillary">Capillaries</a> → <a href="Venule" title="Venule">Venules</a> → <a href="Vein" title="Vein">Veins</a> → <a href="Venae_cavae" title="Venae cavae">Vena cava</a> → (<a href="Heart#Right_heart" title="Heart">Right heart</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">Pulmonary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Heart#Right_heart" title="Heart">Right heart</a> → <a href="Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">Pulmonary arteries</a> → <a href="Lung" title="Lung">Lungs</a> → <a href="Pulmonary_vein" title="Pulmonary vein">Pulmonary vein</a> → (<a href="Heart#Left_heart" title="Heart">Left heart</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Histology" title="Histology">Microanatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Microvessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Microvessel">Microvessel</a></li>

<li><a href="Microcirculation" title="Microcirculation">Microcirculation</a></li>

<li><a href="Tunica_intima" title="Tunica intima">Tunica intima</a>

<ul><li><a href="Endothelium" title="Endothelium">Endothelium</a></li>

<li><a href="Internal_elastic_lamina" title="Internal elastic lamina">Internal elastic lamina</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tunica_media" title="Tunica media">Tunica media</a></li>

<li><a href="Tunica_externa" title="Tunica externa">Tunica externa</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasa_vasorum" title="Vasa vasorum">Vasa vasorum</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasa_nervorum" title="Vasa nervorum">Vasa nervorum</a></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_nerves" title="Vascular nerves">Vascular nerves</a></li>

<li><a href="Rete_mirabile" title="Rete mirabile">Rete mirabile</a></li>

<li><a href="Circulatory_anastomosis" title="Circulatory anastomosis">Circulatory anastomosis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Signs_and_symptoms_relating_to_the_circulatory_system180" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Signs_and_symptoms_relating_to_the_circulatory_system180" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Signs and symptoms</a> relating to the <a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chest_pain" title="Chest pain">Chest pain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Referred_pain" title="Referred pain">Referred pain</a></li>

<li><a href="Angina" title="Angina">Angina</a>

<ul><li><a href="Levine's_sign" title="Levine's sign">Levine's sign</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Auscultation" title="Auscultation">Auscultation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Heart_sounds" title="Heart sounds">Heart sounds</a>

<ul><li><a href="Split_S2" title="Split S2">Split S2</a></li>

<li><a href="Gallop_rhythm" title="Gallop rhythm">Gallop rhythm</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Heart_murmur" title="Heart murmur">Heart murmur</a>

<ul><li><a href="Systolic_heart_murmur" title="Systolic heart murmur">Systolic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Functional_murmur" title="Functional murmur">Functional murmur</a></li>

<li><a href="Still's_murmur" title="Still's murmur">Still's murmur</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Diastolic_heart_murmur" title="Diastolic heart murmur">Diastolic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pulmonary_insufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary insufficiency">Pulmonary insufficiency</a></li>

<li><a href="Graham_Steell_murmur" title="Graham Steell murmur">Graham Steell murmur</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Continuous_murmurs" title="Continuous murmurs">Continuous</a></li>

<li><a href="Carey_Coombs_murmur" title="Carey Coombs murmur">Carey Coombs murmur</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitral_insufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitral insufficiency">Mitral insufficiency</a>

<ul><li><a href="Presystolic_murmur" title="Presystolic murmur">Presystolic murmur</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pericardial_friction_rub" title="Pericardial friction rub">Pericardial friction rub</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_click" title="Heart click">Heart click</a></li>

<li><a href="Bruit" title="Bruit">Bruit</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carotid_bruit" title="Carotid bruit">carotid</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pulse" title="Pulse">Pulse</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tachycardia" title="Tachycardia">Tachycardia</a></li>

<li><a href="Bradycardia" title="Bradycardia">Bradycardia</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulsus_paradoxus" title="Pulsus paradoxus">Pulsus paradoxus</a></li>

<li>doubled

<ul><li><a href="Pulsus_bisferiens" title="Pulsus bisferiens">Pulsus bisferiens</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulsus_bigeminus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulsus bigeminus">Pulsus bigeminus</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pulsus_alternans" title="Pulsus alternans">Pulsus alternans</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Palpitations" title="Palpitations">Palpitations</a>

<li><a href="C%C5%93ur_en_sabot" title="Cœur en sabot">Cœur en sabot</a></li>

<li><a href="Jugular_venous_pressure" title="Jugular venous pressure">Jugular venous pressure</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cannon_A_waves" title="Cannon A waves">Cannon A waves</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hyperaemia" title="Hyperaemia">Hyperaemia</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Shock_(circulatory)" title="Shock (circulatory)">Shock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cardiogenic_shock" title="Cardiogenic shock">Cardiogenic</a></li>

<li><a href="Obstructive_shock" title="Obstructive shock">Obstructive</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypovolemia" title="Hypovolemia">Hypovolemic</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributive_shock" title="Distributive shock">Distributive</a></li>

<li>See further Template:Shock</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Aortic_insufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Aortic insufficiency">Aortic insufficiency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collapsing_pulse" title="Collapsing pulse">Collapsing pulse</a></li>

<li><a href="De_Musset's_sign" title="De Musset's sign">De Musset's sign</a></li>

<li><a href="Duroziez's_sign" title="Duroziez's sign">Duroziez's sign</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%BCller's_sign" title="Müller's sign">Müller's sign</a></li>

<li><a href="Austin_Flint_murmur" title="Austin Flint murmur">Austin Flint murmur</a></li>

<li><a href="Mayne's_sign" title="Mayne's sign">Mayne's sign</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="Endocardium" title="Endocardium">endocardium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Endocarditis" title="Endocarditis">endocarditis</a>: <a href="Roth's_spot" title="Roth's spot">Roth's spot</a></li>

<li><a href="Janeway_lesion" title="Janeway lesion">Janeway lesion</a>/<a href="Osler's_node" title="Osler's node">Osler's node</a></li>

<li><a href="Bracht%E2%80%93Wachter_bodies" title="Bracht–Wachter bodies">Bracht–Wachter bodies</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pericardium" title="Pericardium">Pericardium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_tamponade" title="Cardiac tamponade">Cardiac tamponade</a>/<a href="Pericardial_effusion" title="Pericardial effusion">Pericardial effusion</a>: <a href="Beck's_triad_(cardiology)" title="Beck's triad (cardiology)">Beck's triad</a></li>

<li><a href="Ewart's_sign" title="Ewart's sign">Ewart's sign</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Rheumatic_fever" title="Rheumatic fever">rheumatic fever</a>:</li>

<li><a href="Anitschkow_cell" title="Anitschkow cell">Anitschkow cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Aschoff_body" title="Aschoff body">Aschoff body</a></li>

<li><a href="Gallavardin_phenomenon" title="Gallavardin phenomenon">Gallavardin phenomenon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vascular_disease" title="Vascular disease">Vascular disease</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Artery" title="Artery">Arterial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aortic_aneurysm" title="Aortic aneurysm">aortic aneurysm</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cardarelli's_sign" title="Cardarelli's sign">Cardarelli's sign</a></li>

<li><a href="Oliver's_sign" title="Oliver's sign">Oliver's sign</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonary_embolism" title="Pulmonary embolism">pulmonary embolism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Right_heart_strain" title="Right heart strain">Right heart strain</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Radial_artery" title="Radial artery">radial artery sufficiency</a>

<ul><li><a href="Allen's_test" title="Allen's test">Allen's test</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pseudohypertension" title="Pseudohypertension">pseudohypertension</a></li>

<li><a href="Thrombus" title="Thrombus">thrombus</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lines_of_Zahn" title="Lines of Zahn">Lines of Zahn</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Adson's_sign" title="Adson's sign">Adson's sign</a></li>

<li><a href="Arteriovenous_fistula" title="Arteriovenous fistula">arteriovenous fistula</a>

<ul><li><a href="Nicoladoni%E2%80%93Branham_sign" title="Nicoladoni–Branham sign">Nicoladoni–Branham sign</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vein" title="Vein">Venous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Friedreich's_sign" title="Friedreich's sign">Friedreich's sign</a></li>

<li><a href="Caput_medusae" title="Caput medusae">Caput medusae</a></li>

<li><a href="Kussmaul's_sign" title="Kussmaul's sign">Kussmaul's sign</a></li>

<li><a href="Trendelenburg_test" title="Trendelenburg test">Trendelenburg test</a></li>

<li><a href="Superior_vena_cava_syndrome" title="Superior vena cava syndrome">superior vena cava syndrome</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pemberton's_sign" title="Pemberton's sign">Pemberton's sign</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cardiovascular_disease_(heart)135" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Cardiovascular_disease_(heart)135" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a> (heart)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ischemia" title="Ischemia">Ischemia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coronary disease</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">Coronary artery disease</a> (CAD)</li>

<li><a href="Coronary_artery_aneurysm" title="Coronary artery aneurysm">Coronary artery aneurysm</a></li>

<li><a href="Spontaneous_coronary_artery_dissection" title="Spontaneous coronary artery dissection">Spontaneous coronary artery dissection</a> (SCAD)</li>

<li><a href="Coronary_thrombosis" title="Coronary thrombosis">Coronary thrombosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Coronary_vasospasm" title="Coronary vasospasm">Coronary vasospasm</a></li>

<li><a href="Myocardial_bridge" title="Myocardial bridge">Myocardial bridge</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active ischemia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Angina" title="Angina">Angina pectoris</a>

<ul><li><a href="Prinzmetal's_angina" class="mw-redirect" title="Prinzmetal's angina">Prinzmetal's angina</a></li>

<li><a href="Stable_angina" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable angina">Stable angina</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Acute_coronary_syndrome" title="Acute coronary syndrome">Acute coronary syndrome</a>

<ul><li><a href="Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">Myocardial infarction</a></li>

<li><a href="Unstable_angina" title="Unstable angina">Unstable angina</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Myocardial_infarction_complications" title="Myocardial infarction complications">Sequelae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>hours

<ul><li><a href="Hibernating_myocardium" title="Hibernating myocardium">Hibernating myocardium</a></li>

<li><a href="Myocardial_stunning" title="Myocardial stunning">Myocardial stunning</a></li></ul></li>

<li>days

<ul><li><a href="Myocardial_rupture" title="Myocardial rupture">Myocardial rupture</a></li></ul></li>

<li>weeks

<ul><li><a href="Ventricular_aneurysm" title="Ventricular aneurysm">Ventricular aneurysm</a></li>

<li><a href="Dressler_syndrome" title="Dressler syndrome">Dressler syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Layers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pericardium" title="Pericardium">Pericardium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pericarditis" title="Pericarditis">Pericarditis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Acute_pericarditis" title="Acute pericarditis">Acute</a></li>

<li><a href="Pericarditis#Acute_vs._chronic" title="Pericarditis">Chronic</a> / <a href="Constrictive_pericarditis" title="Constrictive pericarditis">Constrictive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pericardial_effusion" title="Pericardial effusion">Pericardial effusion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_tamponade" title="Cardiac tamponade">Cardiac tamponade</a></li>

<li><a href="Hemopericardium" title="Hemopericardium">Hemopericardium</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cardiac_muscle" title="Cardiac muscle">Myocardium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Myocarditis" title="Myocarditis">Myocarditis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cardiomyopathy" title="Cardiomyopathy">Cardiomyopathy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dilated_cardiomyopathy" title="Dilated cardiomyopathy">Dilated</a>

<ul><li><a href="Alcoholic_cardiomyopathy" title="Alcoholic cardiomyopathy">Alcoholic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hypertrophic_cardiomyopathy" title="Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy">Hypertrophic</a></li>

<li><a href="Tachycardia-induced_cardiomyopathy" title="Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy">Tachycardia-induced</a></li>

<li><a href="Restrictive_cardiomyopathy" title="Restrictive cardiomyopathy">Restrictive</a></li>

<li><a href="Loeffler_endocarditis" title="Loeffler endocarditis">Loeffler endocarditis</a></li>

<li><a href="Amyloidosis" title="Amyloidosis">Cardiac amyloidosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Endocardial_fibroelastosis" title="Endocardial fibroelastosis">Endocardial fibroelastosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Viral_cardiomyopathy" title="Viral cardiomyopathy">Viral</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Arrhythmogenic_right_ventricular_dysplasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia">Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Endocardium" title="Endocardium">Endocardium</a> / <a href="Valvular_heart_disease" title="Valvular heart disease">valves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Endocarditis" title="Endocarditis">Endocarditis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Infective_endocarditis" title="Infective endocarditis">infective endocarditis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Subacute_bacterial_endocarditis" title="Subacute bacterial endocarditis">Subacute bacterial endocarditis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Endocarditis#Non-infective_endocarditis" title="Endocarditis">non-infective endocarditis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Libman%E2%80%93Sacks_endocarditis" title="Libman–Sacks endocarditis">Libman–Sacks endocarditis</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonbacterial_thrombotic_endocarditis" title="Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis">Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Valves</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mitral_valve" title="Mitral valve">mitral</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mitral_valve_prolapse" title="Mitral valve prolapse">prolapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitral_valve_stenosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitral valve stenosis">stenosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitral_regurgitation" title="Mitral regurgitation">regurgitation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aortic_valve" title="Aortic valve">aortic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aortic_stenosis" title="Aortic stenosis">stenosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Aortic_regurgitation" title="Aortic regurgitation">regurgitation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tricuspid_valve" title="Tricuspid valve">tricuspid</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tricuspid_valve_stenosis" title="Tricuspid valve stenosis">stenosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Tricuspid_regurgitation" title="Tricuspid regurgitation">regurgitation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonary_valve" title="Pulmonary valve">pulmonary</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pulmonary_valve_stenosis" title="Pulmonary valve stenosis">stenosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonary_regurgitation" title="Pulmonary regurgitation">regurgitation</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cardiac_conduction_system" title="Cardiac conduction system">Conduction</a> / <a href="Arrhythmia" title="Arrhythmia">arrhythmia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Bradycardia" title="Bradycardia">Bradycardia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sinus_bradycardia" title="Sinus bradycardia">Sinus bradycardia</a></li>

<li><a href="Sick_sinus_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sick sinus syndrome">Sick sinus syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_block" title="Heart block">Heart block</a>: <a href="Sinoatrial_block" title="Sinoatrial block">Sinoatrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Intraventricular_block" title="Intraventricular block">Intraventricular</a></li>

<li><a href="Bundle_branch_block" title="Bundle branch block">Bundle branch block</a>

<ul><li><a href="Right_bundle_branch_block" title="Right bundle branch block">Right</a></li>

<li><a href="Left_anterior_fascicular_block" title="Left anterior fascicular block">Left anterior fascicle</a></li>

<li><a href="Left_posterior_fascicular_block" title="Left posterior fascicular block">Left posterior fascicle</a></li>

<li><a href="Bifascicular_block" title="Bifascicular block">Bifascicular</a></li>

<li><a href="Trifascicular_block" title="Trifascicular block">Trifascicular</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Adams%E2%80%93Stokes_syndrome" title="Adams–Stokes syndrome">Adams–Stokes syndrome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tachycardia" title="Tachycardia">Tachycardia</a> (<a href="Paroxysmal_tachycardia" title="Paroxysmal tachycardia">paroxysmal</a> and <a href="Sinus_tachycardia" title="Sinus tachycardia">sinus</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Supraventricular_tachycardia" title="Supraventricular tachycardia">Supraventricular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atrial_tachycardia" title="Atrial tachycardia">Atrial</a>

<ul><li><a href="Multifocal_atrial_tachycardia" title="Multifocal atrial tachycardia">Multifocal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Junctional_tachycardia" title="Junctional tachycardia">Junctional</a>

<ul><li><a href="AV_nodal_reentrant_tachycardia" title="AV nodal reentrant tachycardia">AV nodal reentrant</a></li>

<li><a href="Junctional_ectopic_tachycardia" title="Junctional ectopic tachycardia">Junctional ectopic</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ventricular_tachycardia" title="Ventricular tachycardia">Ventricular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accelerated_idioventricular_rhythm" title="Accelerated idioventricular rhythm">Accelerated idioventricular rhythm</a></li>

<li><a href="Catecholaminergic_polymorphic_ventricular_tachycardia" title="Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia">Catecholaminergic polymorphic</a></li>

<li><a href="Torsades_de_pointes" title="Torsades de pointes">Torsades de pointes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Premature contraction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Premature_atrial_contraction" title="Premature atrial contraction">Atrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Premature_junctional_contraction" title="Premature junctional contraction">Junctional</a></li>

<li><a href="Premature_ventricular_contraction" title="Premature ventricular contraction">Ventricular</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pre-excitation_syndrome" title="Pre-excitation syndrome">Pre-excitation syndrome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lown%E2%80%93Ganong%E2%80%93Levine_syndrome" title="Lown–Ganong–Levine syndrome">Lown–Ganong–Levine</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolff%E2%80%93Parkinson%E2%80%93White_syndrome" title="Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome">Wolff–Parkinson–White</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Flutter / <a href="Fibrillation" title="Fibrillation">fibrillation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atrial_flutter" title="Atrial flutter">Atrial flutter</a></li>

<li><a href="Ventricular_flutter" title="Ventricular flutter">Ventricular flutter</a></li>

<li><a href="Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">Atrial fibrillation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Familial_atrial_fibrillation" title="Familial atrial fibrillation">Familial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ventricular_fibrillation" title="Ventricular fibrillation">Ventricular fibrillation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial cardiac pacemaker">Pacemaker</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ectopic_pacemaker" title="Ectopic pacemaker">Ectopic pacemaker</a> / <a href="Ectopic_beat" title="Ectopic beat">Ectopic beat</a></li>

<li><a href="Multifocal_atrial_tachycardia" title="Multifocal atrial tachycardia">Multifocal atrial tachycardia</a></li>

<li><a href="Pacemaker_syndrome" title="Pacemaker syndrome">Pacemaker syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Parasystole" title="Parasystole">Parasystole</a></li>

<li><a href="Wandering_atrial_pacemaker" title="Wandering atrial pacemaker">Wandering atrial pacemaker</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Long_QT_syndrome" title="Long QT syndrome">Long QT syndrome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Andersen%E2%80%93Tawil_syndrome" title="Andersen–Tawil syndrome">Andersen–Tawil</a></li>

<li><a href="Jervell_and_Lange-Nielsen_syndrome" title="Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome">Jervell and Lange-Nielsen</a></li>

<li><a href="Romano%E2%80%93Ward_syndrome" title="Romano–Ward syndrome">Romano–Ward</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cardiac_arrest" title="Cardiac arrest">Cardiac arrest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_arrest" title="Cardiac arrest">Sudden cardiac death</a></li>

<li><a href="Asystole" title="Asystole">Asystole</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulseless_electrical_activity" title="Pulseless electrical activity">Pulseless electrical activity</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinoatrial_arrest" title="Sinoatrial arrest">Sinoatrial arrest</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other / ungrouped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hexaxial_reference_system" title="Hexaxial reference system">hexaxial reference system</a>

<ul><li><a href="Right_axis_deviation" title="Right axis deviation">Right axis deviation</a></li>

<li><a href="Left_axis_deviation" title="Left axis deviation">Left axis deviation</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Short_QT_syndrome" title="Short QT syndrome">Short QT syndrome</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="T_wave_alternans" title="T wave alternans">T wave alternans</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="ST_elevation" title="ST elevation">ST elevation</a></li>

<li><a href="ST_depression" title="ST depression">ST depression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Strain_pattern" title="Strain pattern">Strain pattern</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cardiomegaly" title="Cardiomegaly">Cardiomegaly</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ventricular_hypertrophy" title="Ventricular hypertrophy">Ventricular hypertrophy</a>

<li><a href="Right_ventricular_hypertrophy" title="Right ventricular hypertrophy">Right</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonary_heart_disease" title="Pulmonary heart disease">Pulmonary</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Atrial_enlargement" title="Atrial enlargement">Atrial enlargement</a>

<li><a href="Right_atrial_enlargement" title="Right atrial enlargement">Right</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Athletic_heart_syndrome" title="Athletic heart syndrome">Athletic heart syndrome</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_fibrosis" title="Cardiac fibrosis">Cardiac fibrosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">Heart failure</a>

<ul><li><a href="Diastolic_heart_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Diastolic heart failure">Diastolic heart failure</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiac_asthma" title="Cardiac asthma">Cardiac asthma</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Rheumatic_fever" title="Rheumatic fever">Rheumatic fever</a></li>

<li><a href="Obstructive_shock" title="Obstructive shock">Obstructive shock</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tests_and_procedures_involving_the_heart388" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tests_and_procedures_involving_the_heart388" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Tests and <a href="Medical_procedure" title="Medical procedure">procedures</a> involving the <a href="Heart" title="Heart">heart</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Interventional_cardiology" title="Interventional cardiology">Interventional cardiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiology_diagnostic_tests_and_procedures" title="Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures">Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiac_imaging" title="Cardiac imaging">Cardiac imaging</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surgery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">Heart valves</a> and septa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Heart_valve_repair" title="Heart valve repair">Valve repair</a></li>

<li><a href="Valvulotomy" title="Valvulotomy">Valvulotomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitral_valve_repair" title="Mitral valve repair">Mitral valve repair</a></li>

<li><a href="Valvuloplasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valvuloplasty">Valvuloplasty</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aortic_valvuloplasty" title="Aortic valvuloplasty">aortic</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitral_valvuloplasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitral valvuloplasty">mitral</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Valve_replacement" title="Valve replacement">Valve replacement</a></li>

<li><a href="Aortic_valve_repair" title="Aortic valve repair">Aortic valve repair</a></li>

<li><a href="Aortic_valve_replacement" title="Aortic valve replacement">Aortic valve replacement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ross_procedure" title="Ross procedure">Ross procedure</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcatheter_aortic_valve_replacement" title="Transcatheter aortic valve replacement">Transcatheter</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mitral_valve_replacement" title="Mitral valve replacement">Mitral valve replacement</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcatheter_pulmonary_valve_replacement" title="Transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement">Transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt>production of septal defect in heart</dt>

<dd>enlargement of existing septal defect

<dl><dd><a href="Atrial_septostomy" title="Atrial septostomy">Atrial septostomy</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Balloon_septostomy" title="Balloon septostomy">Balloon septostomy</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd>creation of septal defect in heart

<dl><dd><a href="Blalock%E2%80%93Hanlon_procedure" title="Blalock–Hanlon procedure">Blalock–Hanlon procedure</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt>shunt from heart chamber to blood vessel</dt>

<dd><a href="Atrium_(heart)" title="Atrium (heart)">atrium</a> to <a href="Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">pulmonary artery</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Fontan_procedure" title="Fontan procedure">Fontan procedure</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Left_ventricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Left ventricle">left ventricle</a> to <a href="Aorta" title="Aorta">aorta</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Rastelli_procedure" title="Rastelli procedure">Rastelli procedure</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Right_ventricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Right ventricle">right ventricle</a> to <a href="Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">pulmonary artery</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Sano_shunt" title="Sano shunt">Sano shunt</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt>compound procedures</dt>

<dd>for <a href="Transposition_of_the_great_vessels" title="Transposition of the great vessels">transposition of the great vessels</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Arterial_switch_operation" title="Arterial switch operation">Arterial switch operation</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Mustard_procedure" title="Mustard procedure">Mustard procedure</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Senning_procedure" title="Senning procedure">Senning procedure</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd>for univentricular defect

<dl><dd><a href="Norwood_procedure" title="Norwood procedure">Norwood procedure</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Kawashima_procedure" title="Kawashima procedure">Kawashima procedure</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt>shunt from blood vessel to blood vessel</dt>

<dd><a href="Systemic_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic circulation">systemic circulation</a> to <a href="Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">pulmonary artery</a> shunt

<dl><dd><a href="Blalock%E2%80%93Taussig_shunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Blalock–Taussig shunt">Blalock–Taussig shunt</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Superior_vena_cava" title="Superior vena cava">SVC</a> to the right <a href="Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">PA</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Glenn_procedure" title="Glenn procedure">Glenn procedure</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cardiac vessels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<dd><a href="Percutaneous_coronary_intervention" title="Percutaneous coronary intervention">Angioplasty</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Vascular_bypass" title="Vascular bypass">Bypass</a>/<a href="Coronary_artery_bypass_surgery" title="Coronary artery bypass surgery">Coronary artery bypass</a>

<dl><dd><a href="MIDCAB" class="mw-redirect" title="MIDCAB">MIDCAB</a></dd>

<dd><a href="TECAB" class="mw-redirect" title="TECAB">TECAB</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Coronary_stent" title="Coronary stent">Coronary stent</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Bare-metal_stent" title="Bare-metal stent">Bare-metal stent</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Drug-eluting_stent" title="Drug-eluting stent">Drug-eluting stent</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Obstacle removal</dt>

<dd><a href="Endarterectomy" title="Endarterectomy">Endarterectomy</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Atherectomy" title="Atherectomy">Atherectomy</a></dd></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Bentall_procedure" title="Bentall procedure">Bentall procedure</a></li>

<li><a href="Valve-sparing_aortic_root_replacement" title="Valve-sparing aortic root replacement">Valve-sparing aortic root replacement</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="LeCompte_maneuver" title="LeCompte maneuver">LeCompte maneuver</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt><a href="Pericardium" title="Pericardium">Pericardium</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Pericardiocentesis" title="Pericardiocentesis">Pericardiocentesis</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Pericardial_window" title="Pericardial window">Pericardial window</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Pericardiectomy" title="Pericardiectomy">Pericardiectomy</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Myocardium" class="mw-redirect" title="Myocardium">Myocardium</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Cardiomyoplasty" title="Cardiomyoplasty">Cardiomyoplasty</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Dor_procedure" title="Dor procedure">Dor procedure</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Septal_myectomy" title="Septal myectomy">Septal myectomy</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Ventricular_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventricular reduction">Ventricular reduction</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Alcohol_septal_ablation" title="Alcohol septal ablation">Alcohol septal ablation</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Cardiac_conduction_system" title="Cardiac conduction system">Conduction system</a></dt>

<dd>Maze procedure (<a href="Cox_maze_procedure" title="Cox maze procedure">Cox maze</a> and <a href="Minimaze_procedure" title="Minimaze procedure">minimaze</a>)</dd>

<dd><a href="Catheter_ablation" title="Catheter ablation">Catheter ablation</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cryoablation" title="Cryoablation">Cryoablation</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Radiofrequency_ablation" title="Radiofrequency ablation">Radiofrequency ablation</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial cardiac pacemaker">Pacemaker insertion</a></dd>

<dd><a href="S-ICD" class="mw-redirect" title="S-ICD">S-ICD</a> implantation</dd>

<dd><a href="Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator" title="Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator">ICD</a> implantation</dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_resynchronization_therapy" title="Cardiac resynchronization therapy">Cardiac resynchronization therapy</a></dd></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Left_atrial_appendage_occlusion" title="Left atrial appendage occlusion">Left atrial appendage occlusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiotomy" title="Cardiotomy">Cardiotomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_transplantation" title="Heart transplantation">Heart transplantation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<dl><dt><a href="Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Electrocardiography" title="Electrocardiography">Electrocardiography</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Vectorcardiography" title="Vectorcardiography">Vectorcardiography</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Magnetocardiography" title="Magnetocardiography">Magnetocardiography</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Holter_monitor" title="Holter monitor">Holter monitor</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Implantable_loop_recorder" title="Implantable loop recorder">Implantable loop recorder</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_stress_test" title="Cardiac stress test">Cardiac stress test</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Bruce_protocol" title="Bruce protocol">Bruce protocol</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Electrophysiology_study" title="Electrophysiology study">Electrophysiology study</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Wireless_ambulatory_ECG" title="Wireless ambulatory ECG">Wireless ambulatory ECG</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Cardiac_imaging" title="Cardiac imaging">Cardiac imaging</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Angiocardiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiocardiography">Angiocardiography</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Echocardiography" title="Echocardiography">Echocardiography</a>

<dd><a href="Myocardial_perfusion_imaging" title="Myocardial perfusion imaging">Myocardial perfusion imaging</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging">Cardiovascular MRI</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_ventriculography" title="Cardiac ventriculography">Ventriculography</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Radionuclide_ventriculography" class="mw-redirect" title="Radionuclide ventriculography">Radionuclide ventriculography</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_catheterization" title="Cardiac catheterization">Cardiac catheterization</a>/<a href="Coronary_catheterization" title="Coronary catheterization">Coronary catheterization</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_CT" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac CT">Cardiac CT</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_PET" title="Cardiac PET">Cardiac PET</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Sound" title="Sound">sound</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Phonocardiogram" title="Phonocardiogram">Phonocardiogram</a></dd></dl>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cardiology_diagnostic_tests_and_procedures" title="Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures">Function tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Impedance_cardiography" title="Impedance cardiography">Impedance cardiography</a></li>

<li><a href="Ballistocardiography" title="Ballistocardiography">Ballistocardiography</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiotocography" title="Cardiotocography">Cardiotocography</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cardioversion" title="Cardioversion">Cardioversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcutaneous_pacing" title="Transcutaneous pacing">Transcutaneous pacing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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